Ehud Netzer (Director) HASMONEANAND AND HERODIAN HASMONEAN HERODIAN PALACESAT ATJERICHO PALACES JERICHO Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations Volume V: The Finds from Jericho and Cypros RACHEL BAR-NATHAN AND JUDIT GÄRTNER with contributions by: Nili Ahipaz, Shua Amorai-Stark, Assaf Avraham, Rachel Bar-Nathan, Avner Ecker, Irina Eisenstadt, Esther Eshel, Judit Gärtner, Kathryn Gleason, Malka Hershkovitz, Ruth Jackson-Tal, Ravit Nenner-Soriano, Orit Peleg-Barkat, Frankie Snyder, Guy D. Stiebel Israel Exploration Society Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem 2013 THIS VOLUME WAS MADE POSSIBLE WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE SAMIS FOUNDATION ISBN 978-965-221-090-6 ©2013 Israel Exploration Society All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form (except for brief excerpts of reviewers), without permission from the publisher. Editing by Shelley Sadeh Layout by Avraham Pladot Typesetting by Marzel A.S. — Jerusalem Printed by Old City Press Ltd., Jerusalem Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi List of Figures Plates and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Ehud Netzer Architect and Archaeologist — The Search for the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho Rachel Bar-Nathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii Part I: The Finds from Jericho Chapter 1 The Ceramic Corpus from the Roman Estate at Jericho: Late 1st–Early 2nd Centuries C.E. Rachel Bar-Nathan and Irina Eisenstadt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Chapter 2 The Pottery from the Hippodrome at Jericho Rachel Bar-Nathan and Judit Gärtner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Chapter 3 The Glass Finds from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho Ruth E. Jackson-Tal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Chapter 4 A Carnelian Gemstone from the Herodian Palaces at Jericho Malka Hershkovitz and Shua Amorai-Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Part II: The Finds from Cypros Chapter 5 The Pottery from the Palatial Fortress at Cypros Rachel Bar-Nathan and Judit Gärtner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Chapter 6 The Glass Finds from the Palatial Fortress at Cypros Ruth E. Jackson-Tal . . . . . 165 Chapter 7 The Coins from the Palatial Fortress at Cypros Nili Ahipaz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Chapter 8 The Opus Sectile Floor in a Caldarium of the Palatial Fortress at Cypros Frankie Snyder and Assaf Avraham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Part III: The Finds from Jericho and Cypros Chapter 9 The Stone Artifacts from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Rachel Bar-Nathan and Judit Gärtner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Chapter 10 The Architectural Decoration from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Orit Peleg-Barkat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Chapter 11 The Metal Artifacts from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Ravit Nenner-Soriano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Chapter 12 The Miscellenaus Finds from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Ravit Nenner-Soriano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Chapter 13 The Military Equipment from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Guy D. Stiebel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Chapter 14 The Hebrew and Aramaic Inscriptions from the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Esther Eshel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Chapter 15 The Greek and Latin Inscriptions from the Herodian Palaces at Jericho and Cypros Avner Ecker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Part IV: The Gardens of the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho Chapter 16 The Paradeisoi of the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho Kathryn Gleason and Rachel Bar-Nathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 ABBREVIATIONS Measurements and Dimensions H height W weight L length RD rim diameter BD base diameter PH preserved height PW preserved width PL preserved length Bibliography AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research ABSA Annual of the British School at Athens AJA American Journal of Archaeology BAR Biblical Archaeology Review Bar International Series British Archaeological Reports (International Series) BASOR Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research IAA Israel Antiquities Authority IEJ Israel Exploration Journal ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel JGS Journal of Glass Studies JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology JRS Journal of Roman Studies NEAEHL E. Stern (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, Jerusalem PEFQSt Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement QDAP Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine RB Revue Biblique SCI Scripta Classica Israelica ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins [ xi ] CHAPTER 13 THE MILITARY EQUIPMENT FROM THE HASMONEAN AND HERODIAN PALACES AT JERICHO AND CYPROS Guy D. Stiebel INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the military equipment uncovered at Jericho and Cypros in the excavations of E. Netzer at Jericho during the years 1973–1987. At Jericho, the assemblage of 13 items of military equipment and fittings, most dating to the reign of King Herod, includes a very rare cart fitting (No. 1), personal protective and offensive equipment such as scales (No. 2), shafted and edged weapons (Nos. 3–6), archery equipment (No. 7), torsion and light artillery projectiles (Nos. 8–11, 12), and a handle, probably of a helmet (No. 13). At Cypros, only two artifacts of a military nature were recovered (Nos. 14-15), an Herodian bone arrowhead and a military brooch (fibula) that appears to date to the First Jewish Revolt. The artifacts are illustrated in Pls. 13.1–13.2 according to their catalogue numbers. JERICHO Despite its limited size, this assemblage presents a wide range of types of equipment and production materials. Its primary importance lies in the fact that most of it is securely dated to the time of King Herod (37–4 B.C.E.). Also significant are the few items that can be assigned to the late Hasmonean presence at the site. It is therefore one of the few assemblages that date to the very early part of the Late Hellenistic–Early Roman period. In addition to the items published here, a sheathed sword of the eastern gladius hispaniensis-like type, dating to the mid-2nd century B.C.E., was found in a tomb near the Hippodrome of Tell es-Samarat, Jericho (Stiebel 2004). The Herodian martial material culture from Jericho, as revealed by this assemblage, is consistent with the data gleaned from the study of contemporary assemblages from Masada and Jerusalem, although it presents some as-yet unattested types, such as the iron scales and the cart fitting. The Egyptian affinities of the latter artifact and its secure stratigraphic context, suggest an interesting historical linkage (see below). CATALOGUE No. 1. Cart Fitting A(B) 64-609 Height: 90 mm, width: 77 mm, depth: 63 mm, triangular hole 17×18 mm, diam. of cylindrical body: 44 mm, weight: 1012.95 g A cart fitting was discovered in a ritual bath in the Pools Complex, west of the Hasmonean Bathhouse (Netzer 2001:117–123). Dated between 85/75–31 B.C.E., the bath had four phases, the last of which coincides with the destruction of the Hasmonean Palace Complex in the earthquake of 31 B.C.E. The destruction phase is characterized by the accumulation of many vessels and intact artifacts on the floors of the pools (Netzer 2001:123; Bar-Nathan 2002:228). [ 290 ] CHAPTER 13: MILITARY EQUIPMENT FROM JERICHO AND CYPROS This rare cast, copper-alloy cart fitting has a lead core, and the back of its cylindrical base has a triangular recess for attachment to the cart. A similar object, in the image of a griffin, was found at Strageath, UK (Wilkes and Frere 1989:146, No. 50, Fig. 74), while others are reported, for example, from Morocco (Boube-Piccot 1980). Such fittings adorned the cart’s frame while others were fixed to the center of its wheels. This artifact may be identified with the “wings that are made for ornament” on a wagon, which is mentioned in the Mishnah (Kelim 14.5). At first glance, the object from Jericho also appears to be a winged creature. However, closer examination reveals a substantial resemblance to a rearing cobra with a dilated hood and upraised head. These features are typical of the Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje) and are discernible also on the Red Spitting Cobra (Naja mossambica pallida). Hence, the sequentially divided vertical band is the horizontal row of ventral (belly) shields or scales of the cobra (Johnson 1990: Figs. 4–5). Moreover, the pointed, protruding feature suggests the pointed head of the poisonous snake, the short, incised groove visible on this element appears to represent the depression between its eyes, and the oblique lines that emerge from the pointed head seemingly represent the head plates (Johnson 1990: Fig. 12, Cat. No. 7, Figs. 80–81).1 In the Near East, the cobra is well known from Egypt, where one may find numerous artistic representations of it. The rearing cobra was commonly linked with the wadjet, known to be one of the patrons and protectors of Egypt and its kings. These clear Egyptian affinities, and the terminus ante quem of 31 B.C.E. of the locus, may thus associate the artifact with the direct influence of Queen Cleopatra on the Jericho district during this period (Josephus, The Jewish War 1.361–362; Jewish Antiquities 15.88ff). The rarity of this object is even more exceptional in light of the commonly held perception that roads were introduced to Judea by the Flavian army (68 C.E.), some 100 years later (Roll 1983). Nevertheless, this need not imply that such vehicles were not in use at all. In 40 B.C.E., Herod’s mother, Cypros, is reported to have suffered an injury following the overturning of the wagon/chariot (æåõ¨ãïò) she was riding in (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 14.356). Though not explicitly mentioned, a cart might have been employed to convey the bed on which rested the body of King Herod the Great, during the funerary procession in 4 B.C.E., which embarked from Jericho and ended in Herodium (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 14.194–199; The Jewish War 1.666–673), in a similar manner to the funerary procession of Alexander the Great. Armor No. 2. A Pair of Iron Scales B154-300/2 Total length: 30–30.5 mm, width: 20 mm, diam. of hole: 2 mm, weight: 1.91–1.96 g Two identical iron scales from scale armor (lorica squamta) were recovered in a dump of fresco pieces and pottery on the Southern Tell of the Third Palace, a context clearly dated to the Herodian period, 15 B.C.E.–6 C.E (Netzer 2001:297, 298, Plan 46; BarNathan 2002:234). One of the scales is partly damaged. Both scales exhibit flat faces with no mid-rib. They were simply attached to each other and to the probable textile backing by a pair of holes in the upper end of the scales. This arrangement was prone to the penetration of projectiles from the sides and from below. Scales from contexts of the First and Second Revolts exhibit more elaborate attachment solutions (Stiebel 2007:43–50). This marks the Herodian scales from Jericho as an earlier, somewhat “primitive” form in the chronological development of the shape and construction of scale armor. However, this possibility should be treated with caution in light of the very limited assemblage of scales from Palestine and the probability that other factors, like function and style, played a role in the mechanism. The scales from Jericho are the sole specimens in Palestine that derive from a clear Herodian context, apart from the group of spare copper-alloy scales from Masada (Stiebel and Magness 2007:2). Iron scales are significantly less represented in the archaeological record in Roman Palestine, in contrast to the Roman west, presumably due to preservation conditions as well as a lack of publication. A single iron scale was found in a First-Revolt context at Masada (Stiebel and Magness 2007:2, Pl. 2:3), while a small group from Gamla consists of several large scales that seemingly originated in a [ 291 ] GUY D. STIEBEL cataphracti suit of armor (Stiebel 2007: III.3V:1–5). A complete iron-scaled cuirass was unearthed at Sepphoris (Stiebel 2007: III.6/B.1). Ferrous scales are also documented in the hoard of weapons that was allegedly found in a cave near Hebron (Stiebel 2007: V.31/B.2–3) and a large group of iron scales was recovered at Tel ªAzeqah (Stiebel 2007: V.11/B.1), both dated to the Second Revolt. parallels from the Early Roman period are reported from Gamla (Stiebel 2007: III.3/G.6–7), Qumran (Stiebel 2007: III.17/G.3), Masada (Stiebel 2007: III.19/G13–14) and Camp F at Masada (Stiebel 2007: III.20/G.1, Pl. III.19R/5.F), while 2nd century C.E. specimens derive from Herodium (Stiebel 2003:225–226, No. 5, Fig. 12), and ornate and gilded examples from Legio (Stiebel 2007: V.3/G.1–3). Edged Weapons Shafted Weapons This category is represented by two small fragments of a scabbard mount and a frog of Herodian date. One should note the discovery of a gladius Hispaniensis in a mid-2nd century B.C.E. Hellenistic tomb near the Hippodrome complex (Stiebel 2004). These finds are of particular importance as this category is notorious for the few reported finds from the Roman East (James 2004:188; Stiebel 2007:132). No. 3. Reeded Scabbard Mount A(L) 486-8145/1 Fragment A: 12×18 mm, diam. of hole: 2 mm; Fragment B: 11×20 mm, diam. of hole: 1 mm Two fragments of a reeded mount of a sword scabbard. The copper-alloy strap has a mid-rib. Each strap fragment has a single attachment hole. The items were uncovered in a trench dug in the lower wing of Herod’s Second Palace, northeast of the Court (Netzer 2001:195, Plan 29). Similar items were found at Masada (Stiebel and Magness 2007:9–10, Pl. 9:3–6), and ample specimens are attested throughout the Roman Empire (Miks 2007: Taf. 194–199). No. 4. Frog B87-269 Diam. of head: 19 mm, thickness of head: 1 mm, length: 37 mm, width of loop: 14 mm, width of loop: 2–3mm, thickness of loop: 2 mm A copper-alloy, loop-shaped frog with a circular, nearly flat, slightly domed head. The looped shank was originally turned to the right, but was damaged and is now straight. The object was uncovered in a room in a small suite flanking the “throne room” of the Northern Wing of Herod’s Third Palace (Netzer 2001:246, 248, Plan 36). Frogs were mainly used to fasten sheathed, edged equipment to the balteus, or military belt (Stiebel 2007:127–128). In addition, there is evidence for the use of frogs with equine harnesses. Identical No. 5. Spearhead AB18-8354 Length: 145 mm, diam.: 16 mm, thickness: 3 mm, width of head: 31 mm+ Leaf-shaped spearhead with a prominent mid-rib and damaged perimeter. It was found in a sounding in the moat, southwest of the Pools Complex (Netzer 2001: Plan 14). The context is dated to 85/75–31 B.C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2002:228). A close parallel was found at Masada (Stiebel and Magness 2007:27, Pl. 28:2). No. 6. Ferrule/Spear-Butt? AC 19-8039/1 Length: 102 mm, diam: 32 mm, thickness: 2 mm Tapering iron ferrule or spear-butt that was uncovered in a locus in a swimming pool situated west of the Buried Palace (Netzer 2001:57–58, Plans 12, 14), in a context dated to 85/75–31 B.C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2002:229). This ferrule may be compared with a specimen from Masada (Stiebel and Magness 2007:27, Pl. 29:2). However, its shape suggests it may alternatively be identified as a catapult head, although specimens uncovered in the Citadel of Jerusalem from 134–132 B.C.E. are smaller (Stiebel 2007:137, note 1). This object was found together with one ballista ball (No. 8) and a helmet (?) handle (No. 13). Archery Equipment No. 7. Iron Tanged Trilobite Arrowhead B80-200 [ 292 ] CHAPTER 13: MILITARY EQUIPMENT FROM JERICHO AND CYPROS Length (damaged): 31 mm+, length of head (damaged): 21 mm+, length of tang (broken): 1 mm+, width: 12 mm An iron trilobite arrowhead was found in a side room of the western peristyle court in the Northern Wing of the Third Palace, dated to 6–48 C.E. (Netzer 2001: Plans 34, 36; Bar-Nathan 2002:233). The arrowhead was damaged and had lost most of its tang and tip, presumably due to impact. It belongs to the most common type of arrowhead in Early Roman Palestine, and the strongly barbed trilobite head assigns it to Sub-Type D (Stiebel 2003:227). Torsion Artillery Ballista Balls The two well-shaped limestone balls from the excavations at Jericho belong to the mid-size calibre, and their weight (4 kg and Ó6.66 kg) seemingly indicates that they cluster around 10 and 15 Attic-Euboic minae (4.366 and 6.549 kg respectively). Thus, it can be surmised that the artillerymen that manufactured both shots used the Greek rather than Roman standard of weights and measures (Philo, Belopoeica 51, 21ff.; Holley 1994; Shatzman 1995). No. 8. Ballista Ball AC 19-8041 Diam. (min.): 145 mm, diam. (max.): 160 mm, weight: 4 kg This limestone ball was found inside one of the two swimming pools west of the Buried Palace (Netzer 2001:57–58, Ill. 84), reportedly together with an “iron ferrule” (No. 6), and the possible helmet-carrying handle (No. 13). No. 9. Ballista Ball F84–2555/2 Diam.: 153 mm, weight (damaged): 4 kg+, estimated weight: Ó6.66 kg This limestone ball was found sliced, presumably as a result of impact, and only 60% has survived. It was unearthed in a room in the Industrial Area, built during Phase 3b (15 B.C.E.–6 C.E.; Netzer and Laureys-Chachy 2004:116–117, Plan 17). No. 10. Ballista Ball (?) (not illustrated) 32.1035 Diam.: 0.075 m The discovery of this slightly chipped flint ball in 1932 in “Room 2 of the Palace”, is mentioned in the Mandatory archaeological records (IAA archives), and was unavailable for examination. It is worthy of note that to date, no use of flint in the production of ballista balls has been attested in Israel, hence the uncertainty as to its identification. No. 11. Catapult Bolt F44-3588 Length: 115 mm, length of head: 46 mm, length of socket: 69 mm, width: 23 mm A corroded, socketed iron bolt that slightly expands at its head. It was uncovered in a pool in the Industrial Area (Netzer and Laureys-Chachy 2004:58–60, Ills. 72–73, Plan 12). The pool went out of use during Phase 4a (48–70 C.E.) and therefore the material may be related to the events of the Roman conquest of Jericho during the First Jewish Revolt. The earliest catapult bolts in Palestine were found in a late 2nd century B.C.E. context in the citadel of Jerusalem (Stiebel 2007:137, note 8). Light Artillery No. 12. Slingshot A(B)101–867 Length: 36 mm, width: 23 mm, thickness: 19 mm A biconical leaden pellet. This was somewhat crudely manufactured and the surface exhibits hammering marks. No evidence of cast inscriptions or symbols was discerned. The shot was discovered in the large swimming pool in the Pools Complex in Area AB, which existed from the end of the Hasmonean period as one pool, and was divided into two swimming pools by Herod (Netzer 2001:70–76, Plan 14:18–19/46–49). Although most of the leaden slingshots uncovered in Palestine are attributed to the Hellenistic period, there are clear indications that this type was also used in Early Roman Palestine. A slingshot with the inscription M·AN, interpreted as the initials of Marcus Antonius, is reported from Judea (Stiebel 1997), and two leaden shots were reported from Herodian contexts in Jerusalem (Zitronblat and Geva 2003: M 51; Stiebel 2007: III.12/K.1–2). [ 293 ] GUY D. STIEBEL Varia No. 13. Helmet Handle (?) AC 19-8035 Width: 85 mm, height: 50 mm, thickness: 7×7 mm A rhomboid-sectioned carrying handle, tapering to two looped, “acorn” terminals. It was found in a locus in a swimming pool situated west of the Buried Palace (Netzer 2001:57–58, Plans 12, 14), a context dated to 85/75–31 B.C.E. (Bar-Nathan 2002:229). It was found together with a spear-butt and a ballista ball (Nos. 6, 8). Similar items were also used as handles of other objects, such as metal mirror cases (Hayes 1984: Nos. 269, 321, 324; for a discussion of the validity of this identification, see Stiebel and Magness 2007:14–16). Conclusions The assemblage of military equipment and fittings from Jericho is an important contribution to our knowledge of martial material culture, in particular due to the fact that a substantial part of it is dated to the very early Roman period in Palestine, contemporary with the late Republic–early Principate, a period of transition for which there are hardly any assemblages in the Roman East. The reign of Herod the Great is characterized by a multiplicity of cultural influences manifested in the fields of architecture, pottery and other material culture themes. This is also true, to a large extent, of the militaria assemblage from Jericho. One may point out an eastern, or perhaps southeastern European influence in light of the iron scales (No. 2), while the cart fitting (No. 1) is clearly Egyptian in style and perhaps even in origin. The tanged iron trilobate arrowhead is the most common type in Roman Palestine from Herod’s time onward, and the slingshot appears to be local. It is interesting to note the relatively small number of clearly Roman equipment (Nos. 3–4, 13). This phenomenon should be explained against the background of the limited presence of Roman citizen forces during Herod’s reign, a state of affairs that changed dramatically following the eruption of the First Jewish Revolt (66 C.E.). Lastly, the Roman East is known for the Hellenic influence that prevailed throughout the Roman period, as is clearly manifested by the measures and scales used in the production of the ballista balls (Nos. 8–9). This multi-cultural attitude is further manifested in the diverse composition of Herod’s army (Shatzman 1991), an army that was stationed in Jericho and its close environs due to economical interests, most notably the supervision of balsam production, as well as security and governmental considerations. CYPROS The two military artifacts from Cypros comprise a bone arrowhead dated to the Herodian period and a military brooch (fibula) that was recovered on the surface, but appears to date to the time of the First Jewish Revolt. The heavy conflagration evidenced mainly in the upper part of the fort at Cypros, was stated by the excavators to manifest the Jewish conquest during the early phase of the First Revolt (Netzer and Damati 2004:279), as described by Josephus (The Jewish War 2.484). CATALOGUE Archery Equipment No. 14. Bone Arrowhead KY15-371 Length: 35 mm+, length of head: 32 mm+, length of tang: 3 mm+, diam. of tang: 3 mm, body: 7×5.5 mm, weight: 1.35 g A bone arrowhead uncovered in a gravel fill of Herodian date. The head has a rectangular cross-section and the tang is circular in cross-section. Oblique production marks are visible on the faces of the arrowhead. The tip is chipped and most of the tang is missing, possibly as a result of impact. A similar bone arrowhead, but with a triangular cross-section, was apparently found in a refuge cave of the Second Revolt (now in the Hecht Museum; see Stiebel 2007: VI.2/I.5). Two bone specimens were found at Herodium (Stiebel 2003: No. 7, with references to the Roman West; Stiebel 2009:321–322, Fig. 7). The [ 294 ] CHAPTER 13: MILITARY EQUIPMENT FROM JERICHO AND CYPROS Deutsch Collection contains one painted bone arrowhead with a pyramidal cross-section (Stiebel 2007: VI.7/I.1). Bone arrowheads were used in the Roman West for hunting, but in contexts of the First and Second Jewish Revolts they may also manifest a shortage of raw materials for the production of militaria by the rebels (Stiebel 2009:321–322). However, as the bone arrowhead under discussion was found in a Herodian context, it was seemingly intended as hunting equipment (for a description of Herod as an outstanding hunter, see Josephus, The Jewish War 1.429–430). Dress Fittings No. 15. Aucissa brooch KYSurface 23/1 Length: 43 mm; width (damaged): 14 mm+; width of bow: 7 mm; width of inscription’s plate: 11 mm; diam. of bulbous-tipped foot: 5 mm; thickness of hinge: 4 mm. A copper-alloy brooch of the aucissa (AVCISSA) type (Maroviæ 1961; RIB 2421.5–40) was found on the surface of the site. The brooch exhibits a high, semi-circular bow with a molded central ridge. The bow terminates in a spring hinge, now mostly missing. The short foot terminates in a bulbous knob. The head exhibits a somewhat rare version of the molded AVCISSA inscription in retrograde. Very similar specimens were uncovered at Masada (unpublished). This type is usually presumed to have been produced in Gaul. It is attested in the late 1st century B.C.E. and more commonly during the 1st century C.E., under the Flavians (Behrens and Werner 1950:6–8; Ettlinger 1973: 114, Type 5.2; Riha 1979: Type 29). As in the Roman West, it appears to have been the most common type of military brooch in Roman Palestine. NOTE 1 For the Graeco-Roman snake, see Johnson 1990: Fig. 15; for the head of the uraeus of the Great Sphinx, see ibid.: Figs. 165, 170, 172. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bar-Nathan, R. 2002. Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho. Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations, Vol. III: The Pottery, Jerusalem. Behrens, G. and Werner, J. (eds.) 1950. Festschrift zum 75. Geburtstag von P. Reinecke am 25. September 1947. Mainz. Boube-Piccot, Ch. 1980. Les bronzes antiques du Maroc, III. Les chars d’attelage, Paris. Boube-Piccot, Ch. 1994. Les bronzes antiques du Maroc, IV. L’équipement militaire et l’armenent, Paris. Ettlinger, E. 1973. Die römischen Fibeln der Schweiz, Bern. Hayes, J.W. 1984. Greek, Roman and Related Metalware in the Royal Ontario Museum, A Catalogue, Toronto. Holley, A.E. 1994. The Ballista Balls from Masada, in Masada IV. The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963–1965 Final Reports, Jerusalem, pp. 349–365. James, S. 2004. The Arms and Armour and Other Military Equipment, The Excavations at Dura-Europos conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters 1928 to 1937, Final Report VII, London. Johnson, S.B. 1990. The Cobra Goddess of Ancient Egypt, Predynastic, Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom Periods, London and New York. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (English translation by R. Marcus and A. Wikgren), Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA, 1933, 1963. Josephus, The Jewish War (English translation by H.St.J. Thackeray), Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA, 1927. Maroviæ, I. 1961. Fibeln mit Inschrift vom Typus Avcissa in den Archaelogischen Musen von Zagreb, Zadar und Splitw, Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 8, pp. 106–120. Miks, Ch. 2007. Studien zur römischen Schwertbewaffnung in der Kaiserzeit, Rahden. [ 295 ] GUY D. STIEBEL Mishnah: Neusner, J. 1987. The Mishnah: A New Translation, New Haven and London. Netzer, E., 2001. Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho. Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations, Vol. I: Stratigraphy and Architecture, Jerusalem. Netzer, E. and Damati, I. 2004. Cypros, in Netzer, E. and Laureys-Chachy, R. Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho. Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations, Vol. II: Stratigraphy and Architecture, Jerusalem, pp. 233–285. Netzer, E. and Laureys-Chachy, R. 2004. Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho. Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations, Vol. II: Stratigraphy and Architecture, Jerusalem. Philo of Byzantium, Belopoeica, in Marsden, E.W. 1971. Greek and Roman Artillery — Technical Treatises, Oxford, pp. 105–184. RIB: Collingwood, R.G. and Wright, R.P. 1991. The Roman Inscriptions of Britain Vol. II, Fasc. 3, Avon. Riha, E. 1979. Die römischen Fibeln aus Augst und Kaiseraugst, Forschungen in Augst 3, Augst. Roll, I. 1983. The Roman Road System in Judaea, in Levine, L.I. (ed.), The Jerusalem Cathedra 3, Jerusalem and Detroit, pp. 136–161. Shatzman, I. 1991. The Armies of the Hasmonaeans and Herod, Tübingen. Shatzman, I. 1995. Stone-Balls from Tel Dor and the Artillery of the Hellenistic World, SCI 14, pp. 52–72. Stiebel, G.D. 1997. ‘…You Were the Word of War’ — A Sling Shot Testimony from Israel, in Feuègre, M. (ed.), L’Équipment Militaire et L’Armement de la République (Ive–Ier s. avant J.-C.), Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 8, pp. 301–307. Stiebel, G.D. 2003. The Militaria from Herodium, in Bottini, G.C., Di Segni, L. and Chrupcala, L.D. (eds.), One Land–Many Cultures, Archaeological Studies In Honour of Stanislao Loffreda O.F.M. (Collectio Maior 41), Jerusalem, pp. 214–244. Stiebel, G.D. 2004. A Hellenistic Gladius from Jericho, in Netzer, E. and Laureys-Chachy, R. Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho. Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations, Vol. II: Stratigraphy and Architecture, Jerusalem, pp. 229–232. Stiebel, G.D. 2007. Armis et litteris — The Military Equipment of Early Roman Palestine in Light of the Archaeological and Historical Sources, Ph.D. Diss., University College London, University of London, London. Stiebel, G.D. 2009. Military Equipment from the Bar Kokhba Period from the Refuge Caves, in Eshel, H. and Porat, R., Refuge Caves of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, Vol. II, Jerusalem, pp. 309–338 (Hebrew). Stiebel, G.D. and Magness, J. 2007. The Military Equipment from Masada, in Masada VIII. The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963–1965, Final Reports, Jerusalem, pp. 1–97. Wilkes, J.J. and Frere, Sh.S. 1989. Strageath (Britannia Monograph Series 9), London. Zitronblat, A. and Geva, H. 2003. Metal Artifacts, in Geva, H., Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem, Conducted by Nahman Avigad, 1969–1982, Vol. II: The Finds from Areas A, W and X2. Final Report, Jerusalem, pp. 353–363. [ 296 ] PLATE 13.1 Plate 13.1. Military equipment from Jericho [ 297 ] PLATE 13.2 Plate 13.2. Military equipment from Jerico (Nos. 11–13) and Cypros (Nos. 14–15) [ 298 ]